copper-smelting furnace

1) печь

2) топка, топочная камера

3) котёл ( центрального парового отопления)

4) тепловой узел ( установки выращивания кристаллов)

5) термостат ( в хроматографии)

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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Clerke, from Launde Abbey in Leicestershire, was involved in early experiments to smelt lead using coal fuel, which was believed to have been located on the Leicestershire-Derbyshire border. Concurrently, Lord Grandison was financing experiments at Bristol for similar purposes, causing the downfall of an earlier unsuccessful patented method before securing his own patent in 1678. In that same year Clerke took over management of the Bristol works, claiming the ability to secure financial return from Grandison's methods. Financial success proved elusive, although the technical problems of adapting the reverberatory furnace to coal fuel appear to have been solved when Clerke was found to have established another lead works nearby on his own account. He was forced to cease work on lead in 1684 in respect of Grandison's patent rights. Clerke then turned to investigations into the coal-fired smelting of other metals and started to smelt copper in coal-fired reverberatory furnaces. By 1688–9 small supplied of merchantable copper were offered for sale in London in order to pay his workers, possibly because of further financial troubles. The practical success of his smelting innovation is widely acknowledged to have been the responsibility of John Coster and, to a smaller extent, Gabriel Wayne, both of whom left Clerke and set up separate works elsewhere. Clerke's son Talbot took over administration of his father's works, which declined still further and closed c. 1693, at about the time of Sir Clement's death. Both Coster and Wayne continued to develop smelting techniques, establishing a new British industry in the smelting of copper with coal.

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SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy, Mining and extraction technology

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John Coster, son of an iron-forge manager in the Forest of Dean, by the age of 38 was at Bristol, where he was "chief agent and sharer therein" in the new lead-smelting methods using coal fuel. In 1685 the work, under Sir Clement Clerke, was abandoned because of patent rights claimed by Lord Grandison, who financed of earlier attempts. Clerke's business turned to the coal-fired smelting of copper under Coster, later acknowledged as responsible for the subsequent success through using an improved reverberatory furnace which separated coal fume from the ores being smelted. The new technique, applicable also to lead and tin smelting, revitalized copper production and provided a basis for new British industry in both copper and brass manufacture during the following century. Coster went on to manage a copper-smelting works, and by the 1690s was supplying Esher copper-and brass-works in Surrey from his Redbrook, Gloucestershire, works on the River Wye. In the next decade he extended his activities to Cornish copper mining, buying ore and organizing ore sales, and supplying the four major copper and brass companies which by then had become established. He also made copper goods in additional water-powered rolling and hammer mills acquired in the Bristol area. Coster was ably assisted by three sons; of these, John and Robert were mainly active in Cornwall. In 1714 the younger John, with his father, patented an "engine for drawing water out of deep mines". The eldest son, Thomas, was more involved at Redbrook, in South Wales and the Bristol area. A few years after the death of his father, Thomas became partner in the brass company of Bristol and sold them the Redbrook site. He became Member of Parliament for Bristol and, by then the only surviving son, planned a large new smelting works at White Rock, Swansea, South Wales, before his death in 1734. Partners outside the family continued the business under a new name.

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aerārĭus, a, um, adj. [aes].

That pertains to or is made of copper, bronze, etc.:

aerarium metallum,

a copper-mine, Vitr. 7, 9; Plin. 33, 5, 26, § 86;

fornaces,

smelting-furnaces, id. 11, 36, 42, § 119:

fabrica,

the preparation of copper, id. 7, 56, 57, § 197 faber, a coppersmith, id. 34, 8, 19, 6, § 61 (also aerarius alone; v. below).—

Of or pertaining to money:

propter aerariam rationem non satis erat in tabulis inspexisse quantum deberetur,

on account of the standard of coin, Cic. Quint. 4:

hinc dicuntur milites aerarii, ab aere quod stipendia facerent,

Varr. L. L. 5, § 181 Müll.: tribunus, who superintended disbursements of the public treasury: aerarii tribuni a tribuendo aere sunt appellati, Paul. ex Fest. p. 2 Müll.;

or, acc. to Varr.: ab eo, quibus attributa erat pecunia, ut militi reddant, tribuni aerarii dicti,

Varr. L. L. 5, § 181 Müll.; v. tribunus.—Hence, subst.: aerārĭus, i, m.

(Sc. faber.) One who works in copper, etc., a coppersmith:

in aerariorum officinis,

Plin. 16, 6, 8, § 23:

aerariorum marculi,

Mart. 12, 57, 6; so Inscr. Orell. 4140.—

(Sc. civis.) A citizen of the lowest class, who paid only a poll-tax (aera pendebat), and had no right of voting. Other citizens, upon the commission of great crimes, were degraded by the censors into this class, and deprived of all previous dignities. (Cf. Gell. 4, 12 and 29; Drak. ad Liv. 24, 18, 6;

Smith's Dict. Antiq., and Nieb. Röm. Gesch. 2, 63 and 452.) Referre aliquem in aerarios,

Cic. Clu. 43. eximere aliquem ex aerariis, id. de Or. 2, 66 ext.; Liv. 24, 18:

omnes, quos senatu moverunt, quibusque equos ademerunt (censores) aerarios fecerunt et tribu moverunt,

id. 42, 10 al. —

aerārĭa, ae, f.

(Sc. fodina, like argentaria and ferraria, Liv. 34, 21:

auraria,

Tac. A. 6, 19 al.) A mine:

multis locis apud eos (sc. Aquitanos) aerariae structuraeque sunt,

Caes. B. G. 3, 21 Herz. —

(Sc. officina.) A smelting or refining house, Varr. L. L. 8, 33.—

(Sc. fornax.) A smelting-furnace, Plin. 34, 13, 33, § 128.—

aerārĭum, i, n. (sc. stabulum), the place in the temple of Saturn at Rome, where the public treasure was kept, the treasury: to tamieion, to koinon: Aerarium sane populus Romanus in aede Saturni habuit, Paul. ex Fest. p. 2 Müll.; cf. Plin. Pan. 92:

referre pecuniam in aerarium,

Cic. Agr. 2, 27 (for which deferre is often used in Liv. q.v.):

dare alicui pecuniam ex aerario,

id. Verr. 2, 3, 70.—Also for the public treasure or finances:

C. Gracchus, cum largitiones maximas fecisset et effudisset aerarium,

Cic. Tusc. 3, 20, 48, Nep. Arist. 3, 1; id. Att. 8.—In the time of the emperors the aerarium (public treasure) was distinguished from fiscus (the wealth of the emperor):

bona Sejani ablata aerario, ut in fisco cogerentur,

Tac. A. 6, 2; Plin. Pan. 36, Suet. Vesp. 16;

v. fiscus. In the treasury the public archives were kept: factum senatus consultum, ne decreta patrum ante diem decimum ad aerarium deferrentur,

Tac. A. 3, 51; cf. id. ib. 13, 28; Suet. Aug. 94; id. Caes. 28;

and also the standards: signa ex aerario prompta,

Liv. 4, 22.—The Quaestores aerarii (under Augustus and his immediate successors the Praetores) presided over the aerarium, with whom the Tribuni aerarii were associated as assistants; cf.

Quaestor and Tribunus.—The aerarium contained also a fund, established after the invasion of Gaul, and augmented by the immense booty acquired in the wars with Carthage, Macedonia, Corinth, etc., as well as by the tribute of the manumissi, which could be used only in cases of extreme public necessity, hence with the epithet sanctius,

Caes. B. C. 1, 24:

aurum vicesimarium, quod in sanctiore aerario ad ultimos casus servaretur, promi placuit,

Liv. 27, 10; cf. Cic. Att. 7, 21; id. Verr. 2, 4, 63 (of the Syracusans). Hence trop., Quint. 10, 3, 3:

aerarium militare, destined by Aug. for defraying the expenses of war,

Tac. A. 1, 78; Suet. Aug. 49; Plin. Pan. 92, 1.

1) завод; фабрика; предприятие

2) установка; агрегат

3) электрическая станция, электростанция, ЭС (см. тж
station)

4) энергоблок

5) цех; отделение; мастерская

6) установка сейсмоприёмника в грунте || устанавливать сейсмоприёмник в грунт

7) растение || сажать( растения)

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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Several members of Champion's Quaker family were actively engaged as merchants in Bristol during the late seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries. Port records show Nehemiah in receipt of Cornish copper ore at Bristol's Crews Hole smelting works by 1706, in association with the newly formed brassworks of the city. He later became a leading partner, managing the company some time after Abraham Darby left the Bristol works to pursue his interest at Coalbrookdale. Champion, probably in company with his father, became the largest customer for Darby's Coalbrookdale products and also acted as Agent, at least briefly, for Thomas Newcomen.

A patent in 1723 related to two separate innovations introduced by the brass company.

The first improved the output of brass by granulating the copper constituent and increasing its surface area. A greater proportion of zinc vapour could permeate the granules compared with the previous practice, resulting in the technique being adopted generally in the cementation process used at the time. The latter part of the same patent introduced a new type of coal-fired furnace which facilitated annealing in bulk so replacing the individual processing of pieces. The principle of batch annealing was generally adopted, although the type of furnace was later improved. A further patent, in 1739, in the name of Nehemiah, concerned overshot water-wheels possibly intended for use in conjunction with the Newcomen atmospheric pumping engine employed for recycling water by his son William.

Champion's two sons, John and William, and their two sons, both named John, were all concerned with production of non-ferrous metals and responsible for patented innovations. Nehemiah, shortly before his death, is believed to have partnered William at the Warmley works to exploit his son's new patent for producing metallic zinc.

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SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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A descendant of Nuremberg nobility, Ebener became recognized as a statesman in his native city and was employed also by foreign dignitaries. His appointment as Privy Councillor to the Dukes of Brunswick involved him in mining and metallurgical affairs at the great Rammelsberg mixed-ore mine at Goslar in the Harz mountains. About 1550, at Rammelsberg, Ebener is believed to have made brass by incorporating accretions of zinc formed in crevices of local lead-smelting furnaces. This small-scale production of impure zinc, formerly discarded as waste, could be used to replace calamine, the carbonate ore of zinc, which by tradition had been combined with copper in European brassmaking. Ercker, writing in 1574, mentions the accretions at Goslar obtained by removing furnace sections to make this material available for brass. The true nature of the zinc ore, calamine, and zinc metal compared with these accretions was determined only much later, but variation in quality with respect to impurities made the material most suitable for cast brassware rather than beaten goods. As quantities were small and much valued, distribution from Goslar was limited, not normally reaching Britain, where production of brasses continued to rely on calamine or expensive zinc imports from the East. Rammelsberg profited from the waste material accumulating over the years and its use at Bundheim brassworks east of Goslar. Ebener partnered Duke Henry the Younger of Brunswick in financing a new drainage adit at Rammelsberg, and was later granted several iron mines and smelting works. From 1556 he was granted rights to market calamine from the Lower Harz and copper sulphate from Rammelsberg. Ebener later had an important role at the court of Duke Julius, son of Henry, advising him on the founding of Helmstedt University.

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SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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Paul Héroult, the son of a tanner, at the age of 16, while still at school in Caen, read Deville's book on aluminium and became obsessed with the idea of developing a cheap way of producing this metal. After his family moved to Gentillysur-Bièvre he studied at the Ecole Sainte-Barbe in Paris and then returned to Caen to work in the laboratory of his father's tannery. His first patent, filed in February and granted on 23 April 1886, described an invention almost identical to that of C.M. Hall: "the electrolysis of alumina dissolved in molten cryolite into which the current is introduced through suitable electrodes. The cryolite is not consumed." Early in 1887 Héroult attempted to obtain the support of Alfred Rangod Pechiney, the proprietor of the works at Salindres where Deville's process for making sodium-reduced aluminium was still being operated. Pechiney persuaded Héroult to modify his electrolytic process by using a cathode of molten copper, thus making it possible produce aluminium bronze rather than pure aluminium. Héroult then approached the Swiss firm J.G.Nehe Söhne, ironmasters, whose works at the Falls of Schaffhausen obtained power from the Rhine. They were looking for a new metallurgical process requiring large quantities of cheap hydroelectric power and Héroult's process seemed suitable. In 1887 they established the Société Metallurgique Suisse to test Héroult's process. Héroult became Technical Director and went to the USA to defend his patents against those of Hall. During his absence the Schaffhausen trials were successfully completed, and on 18 November 1888 the Société Metallurgique combined with the German AEG group, Oerlikon and Escher Wyss, to establish the Aluminium Industrie Aktiengesellschaft Neuhausen. In the early electrolytic baths it was occasionally found that arcs between the bath surface and electrode could develop if the electrodes were inadvertently raised. From this observation, Héroult and M.Killiani developed the electric arc furnace. In this, arcs were intentionally formed between the surface of the charge and several electrodes, each connected to a different pole of the AC supply. This furnace, the prototype of the modern electric steel furnace, was first used for the direct reduction of iron ore at La Praz in 1903. This work was undertaken for the Canadian Government, for whom Héroult subsequently designed a 5,000-amp single-phase furnace which was installed and tested at Sault-Sainte-Marie in Ontario and successfully used for smelting magnetite ore.

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- aricular iron ore